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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 2018;238:54753 Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032718306207. Euser EM, van IJzendoorn MH, Prinzie P, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. Dev Psychopathol. Cited 2019 May 29. 2017;114(39):103905. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-020-09337-y, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-020-09337-y. 2012;169(9):90715 Available from: http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11091347. Early life stress (ELS) is one of the most critical factors that could modify brain plasticity, memory and learning abilities, behavioral reactions, and emotional response in adulthood leading to development of different mental disorders. The important influence of early experience on later development is a core tenet of developmental science. Pruessner JC, Dedovic K, Khalili-Mahani N, Engert V, Pruessner M, Buss C, et al. 2002;99(13):90726 Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&DbFrom=pubmed&Cmd=Link&LinkName=pubmed_pubmed&LinkReadableName=RelatedArticles&IdsFromResult=12072570&ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum. 1 Ongoing research on human brain and behavior development and studies . Neuroimage. Structural and functional alterations in PFChippocampalamygdala circuits in individuals exposed to various forms of early life stress suggests that alterations in these circuits play an important role in the relationship between early life stress and its effects on development. Bagot RC, van Hasselt FN, Champagne DL, Meaney MJ, Krugers HJ, Jols M. Maternal care determines rapid effects of stress mediators on synaptic plasticity in adult rat hippocampal dentate gyrus. 2010;30(19):663545. Cited 2019 Aug 13. Papale LA, Seltzer LJ, Madrid A, Pollak SD, Alisch RS. CAS King LS, Colich NL, LeMoult J, Humphreys KL, Ordaz SJ, Price AN, et al. Experiences of chronic and/or severe stress during early childhood, often also conceptualized as early life stress, childhood adversity, child maltreatment, or childhood trauma, have persistent and pervasive consequences for development [ 7, 8 ]. Rodents exposed to abusive maternal behaviors or maternal separation as pups show decreased dendritic arborization throughout the PFC and hippocampus [79, 80]. Cited 2019 Jun 2. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ. 2009;110(2):2427. 2009;32(1):289313 Available from: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135620. Hum Brain Mapp. Buchanan TW, Preston SD. Early life stress and brain development. Child Abuse Negl. Psychopharmacology. Early life stress (ELS) is well-understood to have important implications for neurodevelopment and mental health. PNAS. More research is needed regarding how specific ELS experiences influence specific aspects of neurodevelopment. 2017;29(5):1689705. Stressors can be emotional, physical, or environmental, all of which can equally impact the child's stress response. Early life stress and development: potential mechanisms for adverse Am J Psychiatry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Fredrick Otieno, Thabo Magwai, Khanyiso Bright Shangase, Khethelo Richman Xulu, and Thabisile Mpofana. There is now a wealth of research in adults demonstrating that individual variability in neurobiological responses to stress is informed through the assessment of factors that shape perceptions and interpretations of stress [10, 179, 180]. 2015;40(2):11423. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 2002;22(15):68108 Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12151561. CAS Childhood adversity and neural development: deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Psychological, cardiovascular, and metabolic correlates of individual differences in cortisol stress recovery in young men. 2011;214(1):5570. Switzerland: Springer; 2018. Child Dev. Annu Rev Sociol. 2017;53(5):86072 Available from: http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/dev0000293. KES and SDP conducted the literature search and wrote the manuscript. Cited 2019 May 27. Decreased hippocampal volume in healthy girls at risk of depression. Dev Psychol. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA. OConnor TG, Willoughby MT, Moynihan JA, Messing S, Vallejo Sefair A, Carnahan J, et al. Early Brain Development and Health | CDC The early life period represents a window of increased vulnerability to stress, during which exposure can lead to long-lasting effects on brain structure and function. Part of Article 2019;3:247054701983364 Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2470547019833647. Pollak SD, Vardi S, Bechner AMP, Curtin JJ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.05.004. Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood. Prefrontalamygdala dysregulation to threat in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Maternal buffering of human amygdala-prefrontal circuitry during childhood but not during adolescence. Peverill M, Sheridan MA, Busso DS, McLaughlin KA. Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. 2013; Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23375169. Cited 2019 Aug 12. Biol Psychiatry. Early experience is associated with the development of categorical representations for facial expressions of emotion. Neuropsychopharmacology. Cited 2019 Jun 2. The rapidly expanding literature taking this approach has provided insight into some of the potential mechanisms supporting the effects of early life stress on development. Translational developmental studies of stress on brain and behavior: Implications for adolescent mental health and illness? 2010;30(39):1300515 Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2991143&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract. This stress-induced developmental programming may contribute to the behavioural changes observed in mental illness. This approach is based in animal literature that suggests repeated exposure to stress, regardless of type, through chronic activation of stress response systems (i.e., HPA, immune, and autonomic nervous system), alters neural synaptic plasticity leading to cognitive deficits, anxiety, and depressive-like behaviors, and poorer health [9, 27]. Experience by children and adolescents of more than one type of maltreatment: association of different classes of maltreatment profiles with clinical outcome variables. In parallel to the rodent and primate literatures, parental presence has been demonstrated to dampen both cortisol [217, 218] and amygdala reactivity [219] to stress in children. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.x. Additionally, changes in hippocampal volume are thought to be associated with deficits in learning processes in children who experience early life stress [7, 105, 106]. Campioni MR, Xu M, McGehee DS. 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Cumulative adversity and smaller gray matter volume in medial prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and insula regions. However, in cases of adversity where children still receive high levels of support from their parents, these effects are mitigated, with adolescents living in poverty showing altered connectivity in prefrontal cortical networks involved in executive functioning and emotion regulation, but not if they reported having high levels of parent support [221]. Experiences of chronic and/or severe stress during early childhood, often also conceptualized as early life stress, childhood adversity, child maltreatment, or childhood trauma, have persistent and pervasive consequences for development [7, 8]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Danese A, McEwen BS. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. Nat Rev Neurosci. Early-life stress (ELS) poses risks for developmental and mental health problems throughout the lifespan. Development of perceptual expertise in emotion recognition. Safety/security in early childhood has been characterized in a variety of different ways, with things such as parental presence/adult buffering, sensitivity, responsivity, and support thought to be cues of safety, and lack of parental input, through isolation, maternal separation, or neglect, or abusive parenting behaviors being cues of lack of safety [207,208,209]. Cited 2019 Jan 27. Altered neural connectivity in adult female rats exposed to early life social stress. Severe and chronic exposure to these types of situations has long-term negative consequences on a wide range of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes [11,12,13]. A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. 2003;12(4):12430. Neurobiol Learn Mem. Early life stress (ELS) is a widely studied concept due to both its prevalent nature and its (presumed) detrimental consequences. 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